1911

The Americans suffer from an inferiority complex. 

The way the Americans solve this problem is to feel superior to everyone else. 

This is easily verifiable. They decided that A<B should become A>B… A being Americans and B being everyone else...

The Western civilisation originated mostly in Europe — Greece, Rome — and partly in the Middle-East — Babylon, Egypt et al.

The Yanks grew from a group of escaped deluded believers: the Pilgrims. They created a society of honest thieves. Rather than discovering the road of enlightenment, the Americans became a deeply religious arcane country where freedom to own a gun became a commandment like the first law of thermodynamics.

Soon, America made the decision to “conquer the world”. This aim is still in progress. Presently, Europe having been an easy road-kill, the Russians and the Chinese are in the way. This is why there is a massive US government deception, activated through various fake interpretations of information and promulgated via the Western media. This is unfortunately deceptive and DANGEROUS. 

On another front, we need to acknowledge that the scientific information and discoveries in the USA is massive, but it struggles against the deliberate ignorance promoted via religious “freedom” since the honest thieves killed a few turkeys — those Pilgrims… And there is little that one can do about it, as History isn’t what happened, but what has been remembered. What is happening now is a degradation of the American dream — added to the non-rational anger against other “civilisations”.. As well, when politics and money highjack the sciences, the resultant is ugly and ends up dividing communities — including communities of scientists. Money becomes competitive and even some scientists lie for money.

The wokish movement in scientific circles is commendable about equality of opportunity — but someone like Gus would warn that you CANNOT include “scientists” who are god-botherers, say Christians, Muslims or Poopoodanians, as serious scientists. I know we owe some scientific discoveries to religious people and priests, but these are the exception that confirms that RELIGION and SCIENCES do not mix. THEY ARE FROM DIFFERENT PLANET. 

Below we study the characters of the first of several important conferences that changed the destiny of humanity. From the mid-18th century (some characters from quite earlier) in Europe, clever people asked questions about the senselessness of Noah’s Ark derivative marketing. No, you are not going to heaven — not because you are sinning bastards — but because heaven does not exist and never did, even before the Big Bang. One of the American stand-up comics imagines a gay Muslim suicide-bomber going to heaven and being given his 27 virgins. Oh boy… wouldn’t he get mad in this lesbian territory… But enough with the illusions of heavenly surprises... 

Sciences started to question the fantasies of religious beliefs. Unfortunately, President Joe Biden is still one amongst too many American fantasists. But his administration of cunning bastards will use SOME of the sciences to bamboozle the B-Jesus into your brain, like a salutary vaccine…

Somewhat, it appears that more than 100 years ago, some Europeans were more intelligent than 99.9 per cent Americans NOW. Meanwhile, the intelligent people in the USA are caught in the political web of deceit but don’t mind it too much as long as their gigs are financed by the state or tax exempted philanthropist cash that will lead to a PATENT… So the results are going to be slanted…

A case in point was AZT, an existing drug used to cure HIV, but that DIDN’T WORK on HIV (except on mice) — apart from making a certain Dr Fauci a rich man… I know it did not work because all my gay friends who took it died. Some people have done investigations suggesting that AZT was more dangerous than AIDS itself… We know that sciences are not perfect, but sometimes they are “applied” with a nefarious intent such as making money or making atomic bombs — a serious indication that we are MAD.

Here we examine the GIANT intellects who knew how to investigate and propose theories on the reality of matter — AND CHANGED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNIVERSE.

At the Solvay Conference, in 1911, there was NOT A SINGLE yankee playing second fiddle to Germans, Poles, French, Ruskies and the occasional Englishman... 

Above, photograph of participants of the first Solvay Conference.

This Conference, held in Brussels in October 1911, was a meeting of brilliant (European) scientific minds.

Future Nobel prize winners including Albert Einstein, Marie Curie and Max Planck came together to try and solve the mysteries of burgeoning quantum physics.

The conference not only caused a seismic shift in understanding the workings of the universe;  it also had a profound impact on many of the scientists' personal lives and careers.

Seated (L-R): 

Walther Nernst, 

Marcel Brillouin, 

Ernest Solvay (he wasn't present when the above group photo was taken; his portrait was crudely pasted on, before the picture was released), 

Hendrik Lorentz, 

Emil Warburg, 

Jean Baptiste Perrin, 

Wilhelm Wien, 

Marie Sklodowska-Curie, 

and Henri Poincaré. 

Standing (L-R): 

Robert Goldschmidt, 

Max Planck, 

Heinrich Rubens, 

Arnold Sommerfeld, 

Frederick Lindemann, 

Maurice de Broglie, 

Martin Knudsen, 

Friedrich Hasenöhrl, 

Georges Hostelet, 

Edouard Herzen, 

James Hopwood Jeans, 

Ernest Rutherford, 

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, 

Albert Einstein, 

and Paul Langevin.

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The 1911 list in detail

Nobel Prize in 1921.

Walther Hermann Nernst (25 June 1864 – 18 November 1941) was a German chemist known for his work in thermodynamics, physical chemistry, electrochemistry, and solid state physics. His formulation of the Nernst heat theorem helped pave the way for the third law of thermodynamics, for which he won the 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He is also known for developing the Nernst equation in 1887.

During chemical reactions, atoms and molecules regroup and form new constellations. In most cases chemical reactions are not complete without an ensuing chemical equilibrium that depends on the temperature. In almost all chemical reactions heat is released or absorbed. In 1912 Walther Nernst was able to formulate the third law of thermodynamics, which made it possible to calculate chemical equilibriums on the basis of the heat exchange. He achieved this by studying conditions at very low temperatures.

Nerst was the main instigator of the first Solvay conference under Solvay’s benefaction.

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Ernest Solvay, (April 16, 1838 — May 26, 1922) was a Belgian industrial chemist, best known for his development of a commercially viable ammonia-soda process for producing soda ash (sodium carbonate), widely used in the manufacture of such products as glass and soap.

After attending local schools, Solvay entered his father’s salt-making business. At the age of 21 he began working with an uncle at a gasworks near Brussels, and while there he began to develop the conversion method for which he is known.

Solvay’s method was gradually adopted throughout much of Europe and elsewhere and by the late 19th century had supplanted the Leblanc process, which had been chiefly used for converting common salt into sodium carbonate since the 1820s.

This success brought Solvay considerable wealth, which he used for various philanthropic purposes, including the founding of various international institutes of scientific research in chemistry, physics, and sociology. The Solvay conferences on physics were particularly noted for their role in the development of theories on quantum mechanics and atomic structure.

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Marcel Brillouin (19 December 1854 — 16 June 1948) was a prominent French theoretical physicist, but he was also a very skilful experimenter. He always had a laboratory and a large library nearby. In his teaching he always outlined the history of the subject and organised a seminar on the history and philosophy of physics for all his students. He had a great influence on the formation and careers of such students as Perrin, Langevin, Villat, Pérès, A. Foch, his son Léon, and J. Coulomb. He also maintained friendly personal relations with many foreign scientists, including Kelvin, Lorentz, Planck, and Sommerfeld.

In his long career Brillouin published more than 200 papers and books. He was a great admirer of Kelvin’s lectures and wrote a preface and notes for their translation (1893); he also provided notes for a book of translations of original papers on meteorology (1900), a subject in which he was always highly interested. His interest in the kinetic theory of gases, liquids, and solids is reflected in his contribution of a preface and many notes to the French translation of Boltzmann’s book (1902). This was followed by a book on viscosity (1906–1907) and a number of papers on kinetic theory and thermodynamics of liquids (isotropic or anisotropic) and solids, plasticity, and melting conditions. A book on the propagation of electricity (1904) included a complete calculation of proper vibrations for a metallic ellipsoid, a problem that became later of great importance for ultrashort wavelengths.

About 1900, Brillouin spent considerable time building a new model of the Eötvös balance and testing it in the Simplon Tunnel, which was opened in 1906. This is described in a long paper published by the Académie des Sciences in 1908. The Brillouin balance was later used for oil prospecting.

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1902

Hendrik A. Lorentz was a Dutch physicist at the Leiden University. After graduating in mathematics and physics, he worked as a teacher while he was studying for his doctorate degree. At the age of 24, he became a professor of theoretical physics. Lorentz presented theories that anticipated the theory of relativity and had extensive contact with Einstein. Lorentz also worked to improve dams by developing equations for the movement of water, work that made practical use of his theoretical knowledge.

Work

During the 19th century important connections between electricity, magnetism and light were clarified by Hendrik Lorentz. In 1892 he presented his electron theory, which posited that in matter there are charged particles, electrons, that conduct electric current and whose oscillations give rise to light. Hendrik Lorentz's electron theory could explain Pieter Zeeman's discovery in 1896 that the spectral lines corresponding to different wavelengths split up into several lines under the influence of a magnetic field.

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Emil Gabriel Warburg (9 March 1846 – 28 July 1931) was a German physicist who during his career was professor of physics at the Universities of Strasbourg, Freiburg and Berlin. He was president of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft 1899–1905. His name is notably associated with the Warburg element of electrochemistry.

Among his students were James Franck (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1925), Eduard Grüneisen, Robert Pohl, Erich Regener and Hans von Euler-Chelpin (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1929). He carried out research in the areas of kinetic theory of gases, electrical conductivity, gas discharges, heat radiation, ferromagnetism and photochemistry.

He was a member of the Warburg family, and the father of Otto Heinrich Warburg (Nobel Prize in Physiology, 1931). He was a friend of Albert Einstein.

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Jean Baptiste Perrin (30 September 1870 – 17 April 1942) was a French physicist who, in his studies of the Brownian motion of minute particles suspended in liquids, verified Albert Einstein’s explanation of this phenomenon and thereby confirmed the atomic nature of matter (sedimentation equilibrium). For this achievement he was honoured with the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1926.[2]

Perrin was also the recipient of numerous prestigious awards including the Joule Prize of the Royal Society in 1896 and the La Caze Prize of the French Academy of Sciences. He was twice appointed a member of the Solvay Committee at Brussels in 1911 and in 1921. He also held memberships with the Royal Society of London and with the Academies of Sciences of Belgium, Sweden, Turin, Prague, Romania and China. He became a Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1926 and was made Commander of the Order of Léopold (Belgium).

In 1919, Perrin proposed that nuclear reactions can provide the source of energy in stars. He realised that the mass of a helium atom is less than that of four atoms of hydrogen, and that the mass-energy equivalence of Einstein implies that the nuclear fusion (4 H → He) could liberate sufficient energy to make stars shine for billions of years.[4] A similar theory was first proposed by American chemist William Draper Harkins in 1915.[5][6] It remained for Hans Bethe and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker to determine the detailed mechanism of stellar nucleosynthesis during the 1930s.[7]

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Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien (13 January 1864 – 30 August 1928) was a German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody at any temperature from the emission at any one reference temperature.

He also formulated an expression for the black-body radiation, which is correct in the photon-gas limit. His arguments were based on the notion of adiabatic invariance, and were instrumental for the formulation of quantum mechanics. Wien received the 1911 Nobel Prize for his work on heat radiation.

He was a cousin of Max Wien, inventor of the Wien bridge.

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 Prize share: 1/4

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911

Marie Curie, née Sklodowska (7 November 1867 — 4 July 1934)

Prize motivation: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903. Prize share: 1/2"

Marie Sklodowska was born in Warsaw, Poland, to a family of teachers who believed strongly in education. She moved to Paris to continue her studies and there met Pierre Curie, who became both her husband and colleague in the field of radioactivity. The couple later shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. Marie was widowed in 1906, but continued the couple's work and went on to become the first person ever to be awarded two Nobel Prizes. During World War I, Curie organised mobile X-ray teams. The Curies' daughter, Irene, was also jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry alongside her husband, Frederic Joliot.

Work

1903 Prize: The 1896 discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel inspired Marie and Pierre Curie to further investigate this phenomenon. They examined many substances and minerals for signs of radioactivity. They found that the mineral pitchblende was more radioactive than uranium and concluded that it must contain other radioactive substances. From it they managed to extract two previously unknown elements, polonium and radium, both more radioactive than uranium.

1911 Prize: After Marie and Pierre Curie first discovered the radioactive elements polonium and radium, Marie continued to investigate their properties. In 1910 she successfully produced radium as a pure metal, which proved the new element's existence beyond a doubt. She also documented the properties of the radioactive elements and their compounds. Radioactive compounds became important as sources of radiation in both scientific experiments and in the field of medicine, where they are used to treat tumours.

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Jules Henri Poincaré (29 April 1854 — 17 July 1912) is considered one of the great geniuses of all time and there are two significant sources which study his thought processes. One is a lecture which Poincaré gave to l'Institute Général Psychologique in Paris in 1908 entitled Mathematical invention in which he looked at his own thought processes which led to his major mathematical discoveries. The other is the book by Toulouse(?) who was the director of the Psychology Laboratory of l'École des Hautes Études in Paris. Although published in 1910 the book recounts conversations with Poincaré and tests carried out in 1897.

Henri was ambidextrous and nearsighted. He had poor muscular coordination and was seriously ill with diphtheria in his childhood. He received special instruction from his mother and he excelled in written composition while still in elementary school.

Poincaré was a scientist preoccupied by many aspects of mathematics, physics and philosophy, and he is often described as the last universalist in mathematics. He made contributions to numerous branches of mathematics, celestial mechanics, fluid mechanics, the special theory of relativity and the philosophy of science. Much of his research involved interactions between different mathematical topics and his broad understanding of the whole spectrum of knowledge allowed him to attack problems from many different angles.

Before the age of 30 he developed the concept of automorphic functions which are functions of one complex variable invariant under a group of transformations characterised algebraically by ratios of linear terms. The idea was to come in an indirect way from the work of his doctoral thesis on differential equations. His results applied only to restricted classes of functions and Poincaré wanted to generalise these results but, as a route towards this, he looked for a class functions where solutions did not exist. This led him to functions he named Fuchsian functions after Lazarus Fuchs, but were later named automorphic functions. The crucial idea came to him as he was about to get onto a bus, and he related this in Science and Method...

Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway, initiated a mathematical competition in 1887 to celebrate his sixtieth birthday in 1889. Poincaré was awarded the prize for his submission on the 3-body problem in celestial mechanics. In this memoir Poincaré gave the first description of homoclinic points, gave the first mathematical description of chaotic motion, and was the first to make major use of the idea of invariant integrals. 

However, when the memoir was about to be published in Acta Mathematica, the editor, Lars Edvard Phragmen — a young Swedish mathematician who was also interested in mathematics underlying insurance companies and voting computations — while editing the Poincaré memoir for publication, found an error. Poincaré realised that indeed he had made an error and Mittag-Leffler (another Swedish mathematician) made strenuous efforts to prevent the publication of the incorrect version. It is interesting that this error is now regarded as marking the birth of chaos theory. A revised version of Poincaré's memoir appeared in 1890. In the whole process Poincaré told King Oscar that IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE TO PREDICT THE FUTURE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM, nor the PREDICTABILITY of 3-body in celestial mechanics...

He eventually put in doubt the stability proofs of Lagrange and Laplace who had corrected Newton’s “hand of god” — an explanation filling the gap in Newton’s celestial knowledge.

Poincaré also wrote popular scientific articles at a time when science was not a popular topic with the general public in France. He used his literary ability to the challenge of describing the meaning and importance of science and mathematics to the general public. 

Poincaré's contributions to the philosophy of mathematics and science was massive. Poincaré saw logic and intuition as playing a part in mathematical discovery. He wrote in Mathematical definitions in education that it is by logic we prove, it is by intuition that we invent. Logic, therefore, remains barren unless fertilised by intuition.

Poincaré died a year later after the Solvay Conference.

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STANDING:

Robert B. Goldschmidt (1877–1935) was a Belgian chemist, physicist, and engineer who first proposed the idea of standardised microfiche (microfilm).

Goldschmidt was a polymath who also made advances in aviation and radio, among other fields. In 1913 he constructed a major radio facility at Laeken, Belgium, where in 1914 he and Raymond Braillard inaugurated Europe's first regular radio concert broadcasts. He was also a participant in the first and second international Solvay Conferences reviewing outstanding issues in chemistry and physics.

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel, Germany, on April 23, 1858, the son of Julius Wilhelm and Emma (née Patzig) Planck. His father was Professor of Constitutional Law in the University of Kiel, and later in Göttingen.

Planck studied at the Universities of Munich and Berlin, where his teachers included Kirchhoff and Helmholtz, and received his doctorate of philosophy at Munich in 1879. He was Privatdozent in Munich from 1880 to 1885, then Associate Professor of Theoretical Physics at Kiel until 1889, in which year he succeeded Kirchhoff as Professor at Berlin University, where he remained until his retirement in 1926. Afterwards he became President of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for the Promotion of Science, a post he held until 1937. The Prussian Academy of Sciences appointed him a member in 1894 and Permanent Secretary in 1912.

Planck’s earliest work was on the subject of thermodynamics, an interest he acquired from his studies under Kirchhoff, whom he greatly admired, and very considerably from reading R. Clausius’ publications. He published papers on entropy, on thermoelectricity and on the theory of dilute solutions.

At the same time also the problems of radiation processes engaged his attention and he showed that these were to be considered as electromagnetic in nature. From these studies he was led to the problem of the distribution of energy in the spectrum of full radiation. Experimental observations on the wavelength distribution of the energy emitted by a black body as a function of temperature were at variance with the predictions of classical physics. Planck was able to deduce the relationship between the energy and the frequency of radiation. In a paper published in 1900, he announced his derivation of the relationship: this was based on the revolutionary idea that the energy emitted by a resonator could only take on discrete values or quanta. The energy for a resonator of frequency v is hv where h is a universal constant, now called Planck’s constant.

This was not only Planck’s most important work but also marked a turning point in the history of physics. The importance of the discovery, with its far-reaching effect on classical physics, was not appreciated at first. However the evidence for its validity gradually became overwhelming as its application accounted for many discrepancies between observed phenomena and classical theory. Among these applications and developments may be mentioned Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect.

Planck’s work on the quantum theory, as it came to be known, was published in the Annalen der Physik. His work is summarised in two books Thermodynamik (Thermodynamics) (1897) and Theorie der Wärmestrahlung (Theory of heat radiation — 1906).

He was elected to Foreign Membership of the Royal Society in 1926, being awarded the Society’s Copley Medal in 1928.

Planck faced a troubled and tragic period in his life during the period of the Nazi government in Germany, when he felt it his duty to remain in his country but was openly opposed to some of the Government’s policies, particularly as regards the persecution of the Jews. In the last weeks of the war he suffered great hardship after his home was destroyed by bombing.

He was revered by his colleagues not only for the importance of his discoveries but for his great personal qualities. He was also a gifted pianist and is said to have at one time considered music as a career.

Planck was twice married. Upon his appointment, in 1885, to Associate Professor in his native town Kiel he married a friend of his childhood, Marie Merck, who died in 1909. He remarried her cousin Marga von Hösslin. Three of his children died young, leaving him with two sons.

He suffered a personal tragedy when one of them was executed for his part in an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Hitler in 1944.

He died at Göttingen on October 4, 1947.

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Heinrich Rubens (30 March 1865 – 17 July 1922) was a German physicist. He is known for his measurements of the energy of black-body radiation which led Max Planck to the discovery of his radiation law. This was the genesis of quantum theory.

Rubens got a permanent position in 1896 as docent at the Technical University of Berlin in Berlin-Charlottenburg. He could continue his experimental research at the nearby Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt. It was there he in 1900 did his important measurements of black-body radiation which made him world-famous. He was promoted to professor the same year.

After Paul Drude retired in 1906 from his professorship at the University in Berlin, the position was given to Rubens. He was at the same time appointed director of the physics institute.[1] In this way he could influence and lead a large group of colleagues and students. The year after he was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences and became in 1908 a corresponding member Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities.[1] He participated at the two first Solvay conferences after having received the Rumford Medal in 1910 "on the ground of his researches on radiation, especially of long wave length.".

Heinrich Rubens died in 1922 after a longer illness. At a memorial meeting in the science academy the following year Max Planck said about him:[4]

Without the intervention of Rubens the formulation of the radiation law and thereby the foundation of quantum theory would perhaps have arisen in quite a different manner, or perhaps not have developed in Germany at all.

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Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (December 1868 – 26 April 1951) was a German theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics, and also educated and mentored many students for the new era of theoretical physics. He served as doctoral supervisor for many Nobel Prize winners in physics and chemistry (only J. J. Thomson's record of mentorship is comparable to his).

He introduced the second quantum number (azimuthal quantum number) and the third quantum number (magnetic quantum number). He also introduced the fine-structure constant and pioneered X-ray wave theory.

Four of Sommerfeld's doctoral students,[18] Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Peter Debye, and Hans Bethe went on to win Nobel Prizes, while others, most notably, Walter Heitler, Rudolf Peierls,[19] Karl Bechert, Hermann Brück, Paul Peter Ewald, Eugene Feenberg,[20] Herbert Fröhlich, Erwin Fues, Ernst Guillemin, Helmut Hönl, Ludwig Hopf, Adolf Kratzer, Otto Laporte, Wilhelm Lenz, Karl Meissner,[21] Rudolf Seeliger, Ernst C. Stückelberg, Heinrich Welker, Gregor Wentzel, Alfred Landé, and Léon Brillouin[22] became famous in their own right.

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Frederick Alexander Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell, CH, PC, FRS (5 April 1886 – 3 July 1957) was a British physicist who was prime scientific adviser to Winston Churchill in World War II.

Lindemann was a brilliant but arrogant intellectual, who quarrelled sharply with many respected advisers. His contribution to Allied victory lay chiefly in logistics. He was particularly adept at converting data into clear charts to promote a strategy. But despite his credentials, his judgment about technology was often flawed. He tried to block the development of radar in favour of infra-red beams. He discounted the first reports of the enemy's V-weapons programme. He pressed the case for the strategic area bombing of cities on a false premise about the impact of such bombing on civilian morale.

His abiding influence on Churchill stemmed from close personal friendship, as a member of the latter's country-house set, including Evelyn Waugh, the Mitfords and the Sitwells. In Churchill's second government, he was given a seat in the cabinet, and later created Viscount Cherwell of Oxford.

General Ismay, who supervised MD1, recalled:

Churchill used to say that the Prof's brain was a beautiful piece of mechanism, and the Prof did not dissent from that judgement. He seemed to have a poor opinion of the intellect of everyone with the exception of Lord Birkenhead, Mr Churchill and Professor Lindemann; and he had a special contempt for the bureaucrat and all his ways. The Ministry of Supply and the Ordnance Board were two of his pet aversions, and he derived a great deal of pleasure from forestalling them with new inventions. In his appointment as Personal Assistant to the Prime Minister no field of activity was closed to him. He was as obstinate as a mule, and unwilling to admit that there was any problem under the sun which he was not qualified to solve. He would write a memorandum on high strategy one day, and a thesis on egg production on the next. He seemed to try to give the impression of wanting to quarrel with everybody, and of preferring everyone's room to their company; but once he had accepted a man as a friend, he never failed him, and there are many of his war-time colleagues who will ever remember him with deep personal affection. He hated Hitler and all his works, and his contribution to Hitler's downfall in all sorts of odd ways was considerable.[23]

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Louis-César-Victor-Maurice, 6th duc de Broglie (27 April 1875 – 14 July 1960) was a French physicist. Brother of the theoretical physicist, Louis de Broglie.

De Broglie made advances in the study of X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy. During the First World War, he worked on radio communications for the navy. After the war, he resumed his research at a large laboratory in his home. He occasionally collaborated with his younger brother Louis, who followed his professional lead and was training as a physicist, and they coauthored a paper in 1921.[citation needed] After Louis de Broglie's rise to prominence in the 1920s, building on some of their shared research, the elder de Broglie physicist continued his own research. While Louis was primarily a theoretician, Maurice's focus was mainly experimental.[citation needed]

De Broglie became a member of the Académie des sciences in 1924, and in 1934 was elected to the Académie française, replacing the historian Pierre de La Gorce. He had the unique honour of welcoming his own brother into the academy on the latter's induction. In 1942 he succeeded his mentor, assuming Langevin's chair in physics at the Collège de France. He was also elected to the Royal Society of London[1] on 23 May 1940, having received the Royal Society's Hughes Medal in 1928.

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Martin Hans Christian Knudsen, (Feb. 15, 1871— May 27, 1949) was a Danish physicist and oceanographer. 

Member (1909) and secretary (1917–46) of the Danish Academy of Sciences.

Knudsen graduated from the University of Copenhagen in 1906. He was a professor at the university from 1912 to 1941 and director in 1927–28. 

One of the founders of the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (1899), he was also president of the International Association of Physical Oceanography (1930–36).

Knudsen is the author of works on the kinetic theory of gases. He theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that a departure from Poiseuille’s equation is observed at low pressures, in particular, molecular flow takes place. He also studied the thermal conductivity of rarefied gases and the radiometric effect. Knudsen invented the precision manometer and proposed a number of physicochemical methods of studying seawater. He also invented the bathymeter, an automatic pipette for determining the salinity of water, and other instruments. He established the constancy of the ratios of components of saline composition and developed a technique for determining the chlorine content in seawater and calculating the water’s salinity according to its chlorine content.

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Friedrich Hasenöhrl, may have uncovered a precursor to Einstein famous equation.

Two American physicists outline the role played by Austrian physicist Friedrich Hasenöhrl in establishing the proportionality between the energy (E) of a quantity of matter with its mass (m) in a cavity filled with radiation. 

In a paper about to be published in the European Physical Journal H, Stephen Boughn from Haverford College in Pennsylvania and Tony Rothman from Princeton University in New Jersey argue how Hasenöhrl's work, for which he now receives little credit, may have contributed to the famous equation E=mc2.

According to science philosopher Thomas Kuhn, the nature of scientific progress occurs through paradigm shifts, which depend on the cultural and historical circumstances of groups of scientists. Concurring with this idea, the authors believe the notion that mass and energy should be related did not originate solely with Hasenöhrl. Nor did it suddenly emerge in 1905, when Einstein published his paper, as popular mythology would have it.

Given the lack of recognition for Hasenöhrl's contribution, the authors examined the Austrian physicist's original work on blackbody radiation in a cavity with perfectly reflective walls. This study seeks to identify the blackbody's mass changes when the cavity is moving relative to the observer.

They then explored the reason why the Austrian physicist arrived at an energy/mass correlation with the wrong factor, namely at the equation: E = (3/8) mc2. Hasenöhrl's error, they believe, stems from failing to account for the mass lost by the blackbody while radiating.

Before Hasenöhrl focused on cavity radiation, other physicists, including French mathematician Henri Poincaré and German physicist Max Abraham, showed the existence of an inertial mass associated with electromagnetic energy. In 1905, Einstein gave the correct relationship between inertial mass and electromagnetic energy, E=mc(2). Nevertheless, it was not until 1911 that German physicist Max von Laue generalised it to include all forms of energy.

It is Gus Leonisky’s belief that the formula E = 1/2MV(2) which had been used in ordinary mechanics before Einstein and other physicists, can be pushed to maximum with mathematic “derivatives” and loose the 1/2 factor when the speed (V) is at maximum possible — in this case, the speed of light.

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Georges Hostelet (1875–1960) was a Belgian chemist, sociologist, mathematician, and philosopher. He was born in the municipality of Chimay in 1875. He attended the Royal Military Academy, and reached the rank of lieutenant. In 1897, he left the academy and enrolled in the University of Liège, where he received his doctorate in 1905. two years later, Hostelet began work with the Solvay & Cie Company as a chemical engineer and worked closely with Ernest Solvay. In 1911, he attended the First Solvay Conference, eventually becoming its last surviving participant.

Years later, Hostelet became opposed to the First World War. During the war, he worked alongside English nurse Edith Cavell and was imprisoned by the occupying German forces, later being released in 1917. In 1919, he accepted an offer from Solvay to become co-Director of the Solvay Institute of Sociology; a position he held until he left in 1922 when Solvay died. Hostelet left Belgium in 1925 as part of a Franco-Belgian mission to teach social sciences at the University of Cairo. He returned in 1931 and was appointed as a member of the International Statistical Institute in the Hague the following year. He continued teaching at the University of Antwerp until he retired in 1947. He died in 1960.

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Édouard Herzen (1877–1936) was a Belgian chemist of Russian descent who played a leading role in the development of physics and chemistry during the twentieth century. He collaborated with industrialist Ernest Solvay, and participated in the first, second, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh Solvay Conferences.

Herzen was a grandson of Alexander Herzen, a prominent Russian public figure.[2][3] In 1902 he published a thesis on Surface Tension.[4] In 1921 he became director of the Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences at the l'Institut des Hautes-Études.[4]

In 1924 he published, in collaboration with the physicist Hendrik Lorentz, a note to the Paris Academy of Sciences entitled The Reports of Energy and Mass After Ernest Solvay. The same year he wrote the popular book La Relativité d'Einstein, published by Editions of New Library of Lausanne.

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Sir James Hopwood Jeans OM FRS[1] (11 September 1877 – 16 September 1946) was an English physicist, astronomer and mathematician.

Sir James Hopwood Jeans made important contributions in many areas of physics, including quantum theory, the theory of radiation and stellar evolution. His analysis of rotating bodies led him to conclude that Pierre-Simon Laplace's theory that the solar system formed from a single cloud of gas was incorrect, proposing instead that the planets condensed from material drawn out of the sun by a hypothetical catastrophic near-collision with a passing star. This theory is not accepted today.

Jeans, along with Arthur Eddington, is a founder of British cosmology. In 1928, Jeans was the first to conjecture a steady state cosmology based on a hypothesised continuous creation of matter in the universe.[9] In his book Astronomy and Cosmology (1928) he stated: "The type of conjecture which presents itself, somewhat insistently, is that the centers of the nebulae are of the nature 'singular points' at which matter is poured into our universe from some other, and entirely extraneous spatial dimension, so that, to a denizen of our universe, they appear as points at which matter is being continually created."[10] This theory fell out of favour when the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background was widely interpreted as the tell-tale signature of the Big Bang.

His scientific reputation is grounded in the monographs The Dynamical Theory of Gases (1904), Theoretical Mechanics (1906), and Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism (1908). After retiring in 1929, he wrote a number of books for the lay public, including The Stars in Their Courses (1931), The Universe Around Us, Through Space and Time (1934), The New Background of Science (1933), and The Mysterious Universe. These books made Jeans fairly well known as an expositor of the revolutionary scientific discoveries of his day, especially in relativity and physical cosmology.

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Ernest Rutherford, in full Ernest, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, (born August 30, 1871, Spring Grove, New Zealand—died October 19, 1937, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England), New Zealand-born British physicist considered the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday (1791–1867). Rutherford was the central figure in the study of radioactivity, and with his concept of the nuclear atom he led the exploration of nuclear physics. He won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1908, was president of the Royal Society (1925–30) and the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1923), was conferred the Order of Merit in 1925, and was raised to the peerage as Lord Rutherford of Nelson in 1931.

Pondering how heavy, charged particle as the alpha could be turned by electrostatic attraction or repulsion through such a large angle, Rutherford conceived in 1911 that the atom could not be a uniform solid but rather consisted mostly of empty space, with its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus. This insight (the Rutherford atomic model), combined with his supporting experimental evidence, was Rutherford’s greatest scientific contribution, but it received little attention beyond Manchester. In 1913, however, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr showed its importance. Bohr had visited Rutherford’s laboratory the year before, and he returned as a faculty member for the period 1914–16. Radioactivity, he explained, lies in the nucleus, while chemical properties are due to orbital electrons. His theory (the Bohr atomic model) wove the new concept of quanta (or specific discrete energy values) into the electrodynamics of orbits, and he explained spectral lines as the release or absorption of energy by electrons as they jump from orbit to orbit. Henry Moseley, another of Rutherford’s many pupils, similarly explained the sequence of the X-ray spectrum of elements as due to the charge on the nucleus. Thus, a coherent new picture of atomic physics, as well as the field of nuclear physics, was developed.

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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (21 September 1853 – 21 February 1926) was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate. He exploited the Hampson–Linde cycle to investigate how materials behave when cooled to nearly absolute zero and later to liquefy helium for the first time, in 1908. He also discovered superconductivity in 1911.[1][2][3]

n 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure metals (mercury, and later tin and lead) at very low temperatures. Some scientists, such as William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt or, in other words, metal resistivity would become infinitely large at absolute zero. Others, including Kamerlingh Onnes, felt that a conductor's electrical resistance would steadily decrease and drop to nil. Augustus Matthiessen said that when the temperature decreases, the metal conductivity usually improves or in other words, the electrical resistivity usually decreases with a decrease of temperature.[6][7]

On 8 April 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes found that at 4.2 K the resistance in a solid mercury wire immersed in liquid helium suddenly vanished. He immediately realised the significance of the discovery (as became clear when his notebook was deciphered a century later).[8] He reported that "Mercury has passed into a new state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the superconductive state". He published more articles about the phenomenon, initially referring to it as "supraconductivity" and, only later adopting the term "superconductivity".

Kamerlingh Onnes received widespread recognition for his work, including the 1913 Nobel Prize in Physics for (in the words of the committee) "his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium".

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor’s degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualise the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realised the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1921/einstein/biographical/

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Paul Langevin

Paul Langevin (23 January 1872 – 19 December 1946) was a French physicist who developed Langevin dynamics and the Langevin equation. He was one of the founders of the Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes, an anti-fascist organization created after the 6 February 1934 far right riots. Being a public opponent of fascism in the 1930s resulted in his arrest and being held under house arrest by the Vichy government for most of World War II. Langevin was also president of the Human Rights League (LDH) from 1944 to 1946, having recently joined the French Communist Party.  He is also known for his two US patents with Constantin Chilowsky in 1916 and 1917 involving ultrasonic submarine detection. He is entombed at the Panthéon.

He was a doctoral student of Pierre Curie, then a lover of widowed Marie Curie.

Pierre Curie (15 May 1859 – 19 April 1906) was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism…. A SCANDAL was to erupt in 1911. When Marie Curie's relationship with fellow physicist Paul Langevin moved beyond friendly collegiality to mutual love, she could not foresee where it would lead. Langevin, a brilliant former pupil of Pierre's, was unhappily married to a woman who came from a similar working-class background but lacked his educational attainments. With four children to raise, Madame Langevin complained that Paul placed his commitment to science above the needs of his family. 

“They can't comprehend at his house that he refuses magnificent situations...in private industry to dedicate himself to science,” wrote a friend of Langevin's. During the summer of 1911, as rumours about a relationship between Curie and Langevin began to spread, Madame Langevin began proceedings to bring about a legal separation.

Not a single AMERICAN in this list of 1911 emeritus….

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Next we study the Solvay Conference of 1927….

GL

Rabid atheist

I hope I did not forget anyone...

FREE JULIAN ASSANGE NOW !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Note: the list has been compiled from various sources, including the Nobel Prize website, various scientific journals and Wikipedia.